What is materialism? It is a philosophical concept, a dogma that confines the origin of material and non-material reality to matter. Darwinist materialism combines materialism and the evolutionary theory posited by Charles Darwin. According to Darwin’s theory, organisms evolved over time from matter exclusively through mutations and natural selection. At first, simple life forms emerged, from which more complex organisms developed. Today, the fact that all organisms are interrelated is scientifically exceptionally well demonstrated.

According to the philosophy of materialism the origin of life is due to matter. What is the origin of matter? This is a question addressed by theories concerning the origin of matter. It is unknown why the basic physical constants of our universe have the numerical values that they do. Their causal origin is not known. Thus, certain information about the nature of our reality is missing. This includes the cause by which life and consciousness originated.

In the book Mind and Cosmos, the philosopher Thomas Nagel offers a critique of darwinist materialism (1). His analysis is based on the following concept: Nothing is able to develop out of matter that is not endogenous to that matter in some nascent form. Selection needs something to act upon in order to select anything out. A materialist, not knowing the basic dispositions or initial conditions that gave rise to the differentiated properties of an organism, resorts to accidental mutation as an explanation. In other words, the materialist readily asserts that properties first originate by chance, and subsequently evolve through natural selection. However, chance is not compelling as a fundamental principle of evolution. In addition, it is not related to time as a factor, for the rate of evolution is not linear over time, but fluctuates widely, with extremely large rates of change observable during the emergence of new species, as has been shown by the palaeontologist Otto H. Schindewolf (2).

Yet despite the problems associated with certain aspects of the theory of evolution, it is important to appreciate the considerable insights the theory has generated. First and foremost, the theory of evolution is responsible for the understanding that organisms develop on all structural levels from simple to more complex forms. This insight is not self- evident, since all life forms have to overcome a basic principle found in nature: If the ordered state of a life form is not constantly renewed, then it will decay and its parts dissipate. Organisms need energy in order to renew themselves. The more complex an organism is, the more energy it requires for sustaining life.

Let us perform a thought experiment in which we imagine the evolutionary forces that act upon an organism. Envision for a moment a species of lizard similar in size to a mouse which will later give rise to birds. This lizard is well adapted to its environment. One day, a young lizard hatches with a perfect feather on one leg. Hundreds of coordinated mutations are necessary to make this feather possible. Nevertheless, this young lizard cannot fly, for the feather is just one necessary step in the evolutionary journey to a flying bird. The feather physically handicaps the young lizard; it cannot creep well through tunnels, and the feather gets stuck on thorny bushes. In this way, we should expect the young lizard to quickly vanish from the earth. As a result, the potential of a perfect feather for the evolution of birds is lost. This example is absurd, but it shows that it is not easy to introduce a new structure to a creature without impinging on its chances for survival.

Specific properties that originated from mutations in individual life forms have been selected time and again in laboratory conditions. Organisms can survive in an artificial environment even when they are poorly adapted to natural conditions. How large is the selection factor in nature, in general? It has been shown that the intensity of natural selection varies considerably based on the properties of the organism and background environmental conditions. It appears in field studies that the pressure of natural selection drops towards zero when the size of a population or its environment does not place constraints on reproduction (3,4).

Let us consider consciousness as an example for evolution. Human beings are self-aware. And while a nimals are conscious too – a dog barks and moves his legs while dreaming – a dog does not recognise himself when looking into a mirror. For a dog, the mirror image is a nother animal without smell. Clearly, we can conclude that the consciousness of a dog is less developed than the consciousness of a human being. Logically, therefore, consciousness can have different developmental levels. As mentioned, natural selection only operates if there is something present that can be selected. A precursor of consciousness has to exist; a nascent consciousness has to be present from which consciousness can be selected. It is likely that consciousness evolved from an original predisposition towards consciousness. According to the tenets of materialism, however, matter is not conscious, and consciousness developed as a new phenomenon due to accidental mutations and selection from brain tissue.

Most mutations are destructive, which means they destroy an existing structure or reduce its efficiency (5,6). To large extent, the protein molecules in a cell are catalysts, for they allow chemical processes to take place at the low temperature of living organisms. Yet if we assume new properties are developed based on accidental mutation and presuppose an environment with weak natural selection, how do organisms evolve and how is the development of new properties regulated over the long run in nature?

How did matter originate if not by chance? Matter is highly organized, and exhibits strong harmonies. Evolution does not produce junk structures. All matter is ordered according to stringent laws, without any mistakes. If one identifies exceptions, they invariably conform to rules not previously understood. The fundamental physical properties of matter are precisely fixed, including, for example, the electrical charge of the electron, the mass and the charge of the neutron and proton or the speed of light. In addition, matter is highly stable. While calculations have been made in this regard, it is difficult to validate the stability of matter in experimental settings.

Chemical elements have defined properties. These differ from the properties of their constitutive parts, and cannot be deduced from them. A hydrogen atom consists of a nucleus with one proton. Around this nucleus is one electron. The properties of hydrogen, such as its reactivity with oxygen, cannot be deduced from its parts. Two hydrogen atoms join with one oxygen atom to form a water molecule. Similarly, the properties of water cannot be derived from the properties of these three atoms – something new has emerged.

In nature, freezing water molecules arrange into hexagonal crystals. All snowflakes differ from one another. How does this occur? There is no satisfactory answer to this question. Yet variability is also ubiquitous in living organisms: All members of a species are distinctly different from one another. Phenotypical variability is partially attributable to DNA and partially to  the environment, which influences the formation of organic structures. However, snowflakes do not have DNA – what, then, leads to their general variability? Clearly, there must be a principle in our reality that is responsible for the uniqueness of material structures, whether organic or inorganic.

According to the laws of thermodynamics, entropy works to disperse the parts of a structure provided no force maintains its organisation. If a volume of oxygen flows out from a container and dissipates into air, then these molecules will eventually distribute evenly around the globe. The number of molecules per cubic cm of air is large, and amounts to 2.6 x 1019, or 26,000,000,000,000,000,000. The distribution of airborne molecules is the reason why we are certain to be inhaling molecules that were also inhaled by Buddha, Napoleon, and other historical figures. Yet not just air is circulated between organisms. Many other materials and immaterial items like thoughts and feelings are presumably also exchanged continuously; in this way, we are connected on many levels with other living creatures.

The differing arrangement of molecules in space gives rise to different properties: A quantity of disordered carbon molecules is called coal; the same molecules, more highly ordered, are called graphite. If carbon atoms are organised into a tight 3-dimensional lattice, then a diamond is produced. Invariably, diamonds are the product of extreme geologic pressure over an extended period of time. While the forces required to create other crystals are often unknown, energy is always required to counter the disordering force of entropy.

Planet earth is organised into oceans and continents. It is clear from the shape of the continents that they were once joined together. We know that plate tectonics are caused by the flow of magma emerging from great depths. As part of this process, the earth is continuously enlarging. What controls the growth of earth? This is another great unknown.

According to the philosophy of materialism, matter is the causal force of all reality. However, this conception of reality leaves numerous questions unanswered. A major omission concerns the origin of consciousness. What is consciousness? Thinking belongs to consciousness, a process that is not understood. We know that consciousness relates to brain, but neural correlates of consciousness remain just what they are, correlates of consciousness. In addition, there are many indications that consciousness exists independently from the material structure of the brain. Materialists ignore the evidence for this independence. Accordingly, the philosophy of materialism overlooks or disregards all evidence concerning the origins of numerous phenomena. What is required to enable evolutionary processes in a sustainable way? It is structural information, adjusted to the requirement of time.

Consciousness is barely defined as a phenomenon. It is important to better understand consciousness as it is a primary aspect of our identity. It is a characteristic that distinguishes us from other living creatures. This is not to say that other organisms are not conscious, but rather that their consciousness is of a different type, mostly of a less intense quality. With the exception of anthropoid apes and whales, a nimals are generally not self-aware. Orang-utans, gorillas and chimpanzees are able to learn our language in rudimentary form . Their consciousness corresponds approximately to that of a human child.